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diff --git a/resources/Assembly In One Step.html b/resources/Assembly In One Step.html new file mode 100755 index 0000000..2a57ad1 --- /dev/null +++ b/resources/Assembly In One Step.html @@ -0,0 +1,938 @@ +<html><head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=UTF-8"> + <title>Assembly In One Step</title> +<style id="abu-collapse-styles" type="text/css"></style></head> +<body text="#000000" bgcolor="#ffffff"> +<!-- following code added by server. PLEASE REMOVE --> +<!-- preceding code added by server. PLEASE REMOVE --> +<h2>Assembly In One Step</h2> +<i>RTK, last update: 23-Jul-97</i><p> + +A brief guide to programming the 6502 in assembly language. It will +introduce the 6502 architecture, addressing modes, and instruction set. +No prior assembly language programming is assumed, however it is assumed +that you are somewhat familiar with hexadecimal numbers. Programming +examples are given at the end. Much of this material +comes from <i>6502 Software Design</i> by Leo Scanlon, Blacksburg, 1980. +</p><p> + +</p><hr> +<p></p><pre> +The 6502 Architecture +--------------------- + + The 6502 is an 8-bit microprocessor that follows the memory oriented + design philosophy of the Motorola 6800. Several engineers left + Motorola and formed MOS Technology which introduced the 6502 in 1975. + The 6502 gained in popularity because of it's low price and became the + heart of several early personal computers including the Apple II, + Commodore 64, and Atari 400 and 800. + + + Simplicity is key + ----------------- + + The 6502 handles data in its registers, each of which holds one byte + (8-bits) of data. There are a total of three general use and two special + purpose registers: + + + accumulator (A) - Handles all arithmetic and logic. The real heart + of the system. + + X and Y - General purpose registers with limited abilities. + + S - Stack pointer. + + P - Processor status. Holds the result of tests + and flags. + + + Stack Pointer + ------------- + + When the microprocessor executes a JSR (Jump to SubRoutine) + instruction it needs to know where to return when finished. The 6502 + keeps this information in low memory from $0100 to $01FF and uses the + stack pointer as an offset. The stack grows down from $01FF and makes + it possible to nest subroutines up to 128 levels deep. Not a problem + in most cases. + + + Processor Status + ---------------- + + The processor status register is not directly accessible by any 6502 + instruction. Instead, there exist numerous instructions that test the + bits of the processor status register. The flags within the register + are: + + + bit -> 7 0 + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + | N | V | | B | D | I | Z | C | <-- flag, 0/1 = reset/set + +---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+ + + + N = NEGATIVE. Set if bit 7 of the accumulator is set. + + V = OVERFLOW. Set if the addition of two like-signed numbers or the + subtraction of two unlike-signed numbers produces a result + greater than +127 or less than -128. + + B = BRK COMMAND. Set if an interrupt caused by a BRK, reset if + caused by an external interrupt. + + D = DECIMAL MODE. Set if decimal mode active. + + I = IRQ DISABLE. Set if maskable interrupts are disabled. + + Z = ZERO. Set if the result of the last operation (load/inc/dec/ + add/sub) was zero. + + C = CARRY. Set if the add produced a carry, or if the subtraction + produced a borrow. Also holds bits after a logical shift. + + + Accumulator + ----------- + + The majority of the 6502's business makes use of the accumulator. All + addition and subtraction is done in the accumulator. It also handles + the majority of the logical comparisons (is A > B ?) and logical bit + shifts. + + + X and Y + ------- + + These are index registers often used to hold offsets to memory + locations. They can also be used for holding needed values. Much of + their use lies in supporting some of the addressing modes. + + + +Addressing Modes +---------------- + + The 6502 has 13 addressing modes, or ways of accessing memory. The 65C02 + introduces two additional modes. + + They are: + + + +---------------------+--------------------------+ + | mode | assembler format | + +=====================+==========================+ + | Immediate | #aa | + | Absolute | aaaa | + | Zero Page | aa | Note: + | Implied | | + | Indirect Absolute | (aaaa) | aa = 2 hex digits + | Absolute Indexed,X | aaaa,X | as $FF + | Absolute Indexed,Y | aaaa,Y | + | Zero Page Indexed,X | aa,X | aaaa = 4 hex + | Zero Page Indexed,Y | aa,Y | digits as + | Indexed Indirect | (aa,X) | $FFFF + | Indirect Indexed | (aa),Y | + | Relative | aaaa | Can also be + | Accumulator | A | assembler labels + +---------------------+--------------------------+ + + (Table 2-3. _6502 Software Design_, Scanlon, 1980) + + + Immediate Addressing + -------------------- + + The value given is a number to be used immediately by the + instruction. For example, LDA #$99 loads the value $99 into the + accumulator. + + + Absolute Addressing + ------------------- + + The value given is the address (16-bits) of a memory location that + contains the 8-bit value to be used. For example, STA $3E32 stores + the present value of the accumulator in memory location $3E32. + + + Zero Page Addressing + -------------------- + + The first 256 memory locations ($0000-00FF) are called "zero page". The + next 256 instructions ($0100-01FF) are page 1, etc. Instructions + making use of the zero page save memory by not using an extra $00 to + indicate the high part of the address. For example, + + LDA $0023 -- works but uses an extra byte + LDA $23 -- the zero page address + + + Implied Addressing + ------------------ + + Many instructions are only one byte in length and do not reference + memory. These are said to be using implied addressing. For example, + + CLC -- Clear the carry flag + DEX -- Decrement the X register by one + TYA -- Transfer the Y register to the accumulator + + + Indirect Absolute Addressing + ---------------------------- + + Only used by JMP (JuMP). It takes the given address and uses it as a + pointer to the low part of a 16-bit address in memory, then jumps to + that address. For example, + + JMP ($2345) -- jump to the address in $2345 low and $2346 high + + So if $2345 contains $EA and $2346 contains $12 then the next + instruction executed is the one stored at $12EA. Remember, the + 6502 puts its addresses in low/high format. + + + Absolute Indexed Addressing + --------------------------- + + The final address is found by taking the given address as a base and + adding the current value of the X or Y register to it as an offset. So, + + LDA $F453,X where X contains 3 + + Load the accumulator with the contents of address $F453 + 3 = $F456. + + + Zero Page Indexed Addressing + ---------------------------- + + Same as Absolute Indexed but the given address is in the zero page + thereby saving a byte of memory. + + + Indexed Indirect Addressing + --------------------------- + + Find the 16-bit address starting at the given location plus the + current X register. The value is the contents of that address. For + example, + + LDA ($B4,X) where X contains 6 + + gives an address of $B4 + 6 = $BA. If $BA and $BB contain $12 and + $EE respectively, then the final address is $EE12. The value at + location $EE12 is put in the accumulator. + + + Indirect Indexed Addressing + --------------------------- + + Find the 16-bit address contained in the given location ( and the one + following). Add to that address the contents of the Y register. + Fetch the value stored at that address. For example, + + LDA ($B4),Y where Y contains 6 + + If $B4 contains $EE and $B5 contains $12 then the value at memory + location $12EE + Y (6) = $12F4 is fetched and put in the accumulator. + + + Relative Addressing + ------------------- + + The 6502 branch instructions use relative addressing. The next byte + is a signed offset from the current address, and the net sum is the + address of the next instruction executed. For example, + + BNE $7F (branch on zero flag reset) + + will add 127 to the current program counter (address to execute) and + start executing the instruction at that address. SImilarly, + + BEQ $F9 (branch on zero flag set) + + will add a -7 to the current program counter and start execution at + the new program counter address. + + Remember, if one treats the highest bit (bit 7) of a byte as a sign (0 + = positive, 1 = negative) then it is possible to have numbers in the + range -128 ($80) to +127 (7F). So, if the high bit is set, i.e. the + number is > $7F, it is a negative branch. How far is the branch? If + the value is < $80 (positive) it is simply that many bytes. If the + value is > $7F (negative) then it is the 2's compliment of the given + value in the negative direction. + + 2's compilment + -------------- + + The 2's compilment of a number is found by switching all the bits + from 0 -> 1 and 1 -> 0, then adding 1. So, + + $FF = 1111 1111 <-- original + 0000 0000 <-- 1's compliment + + 1 + --------- + 0000 0001 <-- 2's compliment, therefore $FF = -1 + + Note that QForth uses this for numbers greater than 32768 so that + 65535 = -1 and 32768 = -32768. + + In practice, the assembly language programmer uses a label and the + assembler takes care of the actual computation. Note that branches + can only be to addresses within -128 to +127 bytes from the present + address. The 6502 does not allow branches to an absolute address. + + + Accumulator Addressing + ---------------------- + + Like implied addressing, the object of the instruction is the + accumulator and need not be specified. + + + +The 6502 Instruction Set +------------------------ + + There are 56 instructions in the 6502, and more in the 65C02. Many + instructions make use of more than one addressing mode and each + instruction/addressing mode combination has a particular hexadecimal + opcode that specifies it exactly. So, + + A9 = LDA #$aa Immediate addressing mode load of accumulator + AD = LDA $aaaa Absolute addressing mode load of accumulator + etc. + + + Some 6502 instructions make use of bitwise logic. This includes AND, + OR, and EOR (Exclusive-OR). The tables below illustrate the effects + of these operations: + + AND 1 1 -> 1 "both" + 1 0 -> 0 + 0 1 -> 0 + 0 0 -> 0 + + OR 1 1 -> 1 "either one or both" + 1 0 -> 1 + 0 1 -> 1 + 0 0 -> 0 + + EOR 1 1 -> 0 "one or the other but not both" + 1 0 -> 1 + 0 1 -> 1 + 0 0 -> 0 + + Therefore, $FF AND $0F = $0F since, + + 1111 1111 + and 0000 1111 + --------- + 0000 1111 = $0F + + + AND is useful for masking bits. For example, to mask the high order + bits of a value AND with $0F: + + $36 AND $0F = $06 + + OR is useful for setting a particular bit: + + $80 OR $08 = $88 + + since 1000 0000 ($80) + 0000 1000 ($08) + or --------- + 1000 1000 ($88) + + EOR is useful for flipping bits: + + $AA EOR $FF = $55 + + since 1010 1010 ($AA) + 1111 1111 ($FF) + eor --------- + 0101 0101 ($55) + + + Other 6502 instructions shift bits to the right or the left or rotate + them right or left. Note that shifting to the left by one bit is the + same as multipling by 2 and that shifting right by one bit is the same + as dividing by 2. + + + The 6502 instructions fall naturally into 10 groups with two odd-ball + instructions NOP and BRK: + + Load and Store Instructions + Arithmetic Instructions + Increment and Decrement Instructions + Logical Instructions + Jump, Branch, Compare and Test Bits Instructions + Shift and Rotate Instructions + Transfer Instructions + Stack Instructions + Subroutine Instructions + Set/Reset Instructions + NOP/BRK Instructions + + + + Load and Store Instructions + =========================== + + LDA - LoaD the Accumulator + LDX - LoaD the X register + LDY - LoaD the Y register + + STA - STore the Accumulator + STX - STore the X register + STY - STore the Y register + + Microprocessors spend much of their time moving stuff around in + memory. Data from one location is loaded into a register and stored + in another location, often with something added or subtracted in the + process. Memory can be loaded directly into the A, X, and Y registers + but as usual, the accumulator has more addressing modes available. + + If the high bit (left most, bit 7) is set when loaded the N flag on + the processor status register is set. If the loaded value is zero the + Z flag is set. + + + Arithmetic Instructions + ======================= + + ADC - ADd to accumulator with Carry + SBC - SuBtract from accumulator with Carry + + The 6502 has two arithmetic modes, binary and decimal. Both addition + and subtraction implement the carry flag to track carries and borrows + thereby making multibyte arithmetic simple. Note that in the case of + subtraction it is necessary to SET the carry flag as it is the opposite + of the carry that is subtracted. + + Addition should follow this form: + + CLC + ADC ... + . + . + ADC ... + . + . + . + + Clear the carry flag, and perform all the additions. The carry + between additions will be handled in the carry flag. Add from low + byte to high byte. Symbolically, the net effect of an ADC instruction is: + + A + M + C --> A + + + Subtraction follows the same format: + + SEC + SBC ... + . + . + SBC ... + . + . + . + + In this case set the carry flag first and then do the subtractions. + Symbolically, + + A - M - ~C --> A , where ~C is the opposite of C + + + Ex.1 + ---- + A 16-bit addition routine. $20,$21 + $22,$23 = $24,$25 + + CLC clear the carry + LDA $20 get the low byte of the first number + ADC $22 add to it the low byte of the second + STA $24 store in the low byte of the result + LDA $21 get the high byte of the first number + ADC $23 add to it the high byte of the second, plus carry + STA $25 store in high byte of the result + + ... on exit the carry will be set if the result could not be + contained in 16-bit number. + + Ex.2 + ---- + A 16-bit subtraction routine. $20,$21 - $22,$23 = $24,$25 + + SEC clear the carry + LDA $20 get the low byte of the first number + SBC $22 add to it the low byte of the second + STA $24 store in the low byte of the result + LDA $21 get the high byte of the first number + SBC $23 add to it the high byte of the second, plus carry + STA $25 store in high byte of the result + + ... on exit the carry will be set if the result produced a + borrow + + Aside from the carry flag, arithmetic instructions also affect the N, + Z, and V flags as follows: + + Z = 1 if result was zero, 0 otherwise + N = 1 if bit 7 of the result is 1, 0 otherwise + V = 1 if bit 7 of the accumulator was changed, a sign change + + + + Increment and Decrement Instructions + ==================================== + + INC - INCrement memory by one + INX - INcrement X by one + INY - INcrement Y by one + + DEC - DECrement memory by one + DEX - DEcrement X by one + DEY - DEcrement Y by one + + The 6502 has instructions for incrementing/decrementing the index + registers and memory. Note that it does not have instructions for + incrementing/decrementing the accumulator. This oversight was + rectified in the 65C02 which added INA and DEA instructions. The + index register instructions are implied mode for obvious reasons while + the INC and DEC instructions use a number of addressing modes. + + All inc/dec instructions have alter the processor status flags in the + following way: + + Z = 1 if the result is zero, 0 otherwise + N = 1 if bit 7 is 1, 0 otherwise + + + + Logical Instructions + ==================== + + AND - AND memory with accumulator + ORA - OR memory with Accumulator + EOR - Exclusive-OR memory with Accumulator + + These instructions perform a bitwise binary operation according to the + tables given above. They set the Z flag if the net result is zero and + set the N flag if bit 7 of the result is set. + + + + Jump, Branch, Compare, and Test Bits + ==================================== + + JMP - JuMP to another location (GOTO) + + BCC - Branch on Carry Clear, C = 0 + BCS - Branch on Carry Set, C = 1 + BEQ - Branch on EQual to zero, Z = 1 + BNE - Branch on Not Equal to zero, Z = 0 + BMI - Branch on MInus, N = 1 + BPL - Branch on PLus, N = 0 + BVS - Branch on oVerflow Set, V = 1 + BVC - Branch on oVerflow Clear, V = 0 + + CMP - CoMPare memory and accumulator + CPX - ComPare memory and X + CPY - ComPare memory and Y + + BIT - test BITs + + This large group includes all instructions that alter the flow of the + program or perform a comparison of values or bits. + + JMP simply sets the program counter (PC) to the address given. + Execution proceeds from the new address. The branch instructions are + relative jumps. They cause a branch to a new address that is either + 127 bytes beyond the current PC or 128 bytes before the current PC. + Code that only uses branch instructions is relocatable and can be run + anywhere in memory. + + The three compare instructions are used to set processor status bits. + After the comparison one frequently branches to a new place in the + program based on the settings of the status register. The + relationship between the compared values and the status bits is, + + + +-------------------------+---------------------+ + | | N Z C | + +-------------------------+---------------------+ + | A, X, or Y < Memory | 1 0 0 | + | A, X, or Y = Memory | 0 1 1 | + | A, X, or Y > Memory | 0 0 1 | + +-----------------------------------------------+ + + + The BIT instruction tests bits in memory with the accumulator but + changes neither. Only processor status flags are set. The contents + of the specified memory location are logically ANDed with the + accumulator, then the status bits are set such that, + + * N receives the initial, un-ANDed value of memory bit 7. + * V receives the initial, un-ANDed value of memory bit 6. + * Z is set if the result of the AND is zero, otherwise reset. + + So, if $23 contained $7F and the accumulator contained $80 a BIT $23 + instruction would result in the V and Z flags being set and N reset since + bit 7 of $7F is 0, bit 6 of $7F is 1, and $7F AND $80 = 0. + + + + Shift and Rotate Instructions + ============================= + + ASL - Accumulator Shift Left + LSR - Logical Shift Right + ROL - ROtate Left + ROR - ROtate Right + + Use these instructions to move things around in the accumulator or + memory. The net effects are (where C is the carry flag): + + + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + C <- |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| <- 0 ASL + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + 0 -> |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| -> C LSR + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + C <- |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| <- C ROL + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + C -> |7|6|5|4|3|2|1|0| -> C ROR + +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+ + + + Z is set if the result it zero. N is set if bit 7 is 1. It is + always reset on LSR. Remember that ASL A is equal to multiplying by + two and that LSR is equal to dividing by two. + + + + Transfer Instructions + ===================== + + TAX - Transfer Accumulator to X + TAY - Transfer Accumulator to Y + TXA - Transfer X to accumulator + TYA - Transfer Y to Accumulator + + Transfer instructions move values between the 6502 registers. The N + and Z flags are set if the value being moved warrants it, i.e. + + LDA #$80 + TAX + + causes the N flag to be set since bit 7 of the value moved is 1, while + + LDX #$00 + TXA + + causes the Z flag to be set since the value is zero. + + + + Stack Instructions + ================== + + TSX - Transfer Stack pointer to X + TXS - Transfer X to Stack pointer + + PHA - PusH Accumulator on stack + PHP - PusH Processor status on stack + PLA - PulL Accumulator from stack + PLP - PulL Processor status from stack + + TSX and TXS make manipulating the stack possible. The push and pull + instructions are useful for saving register values and status flags. + Their operation is straightforward. + + + + Subroutine Instructions + ======================= + + JSR - Jump to SubRoutine + RTS - ReTurn from Subroutine + RTI - ReTurn from Interrupt + + Like JMP, JSR causes the program to start execution of the next + instruction at the given address. Unlike JMP, JSR pushes the address + of the next instruction after itself on the stack. When an RTS + instruction is executed the address pushed on the stack is pulled off + the stack and the program resumes at that address. For example, + + LDA #$C1 ; load the character 'A' + JSR print ; print the character and it's hex code + LDA #$C2 ; load 'B' + JSR print ; and print it + . + . + . + print JSR $FDED ; print the letter + JSR $FDDA ; and its ASCII code + RTS ; return to the caller + + RTI is analagous to RTS and should be used to end an interrupt routine. + + + + Set and Reset (Clear) Instructions + ================================== + + CLC - CLear Carry flag + CLD - CLear Decimal mode + CLI - CLear Interrupt disable + CLV - CLear oVerflow flag + + SEC - SEt Carry + SED - SEt Decimal mode + SEI - SEt Interrupt disable + + These are one byte instructions to specify processor status flag + settings. + + CLC and SEC are of particular use in addition and subtraction + respectively. Before any addition (ADC) use CLC to clear the carry + or the result may be one greater than you expect. For subtraction + (SBC) use SEC to ensure that the carry is set as its compliment is + subtracted from the answer. In multi-byte additions or subtractions + only clear or set the carry flag before the initial operation. For + example, to add one to a 16-bit number in $23 and $24 you would write: + + LDA $23 ; get the low byte + CLC ; clear the carry + ADC #$02 ; add a constant 2, carry will be set if result > 255 + STA $23 ; save the low byte + LDA $24 ; get the high byte + ADC #$00 ; add zero to add any carry that might have been set above + STA $24 ; save the high byte + RTS ; if carry set now the result was > 65535 + + Similarly for subtraction, + + LDA $23 ; get the low byte + SEC ; set the carry + SBC #$02 ; subtract 2 + STA $23 ; save the low byte + LDA $24 ; get the high byte + SBC #$00 ; subtract 0 and any borrow generated above + STA $24 ; save the high byte + RTS ; if the carry is not set the result was < 0 + + + + Other Instructions + ================== + + NOP - No OPeration (or is it NO oPeration ? :) + BRK - BReaK + + NOP is just that, no operation. Useful for deleting old + instructions, reserving room for future instructions or for use in + careful timing loops as it uses 2 microprocessor cycles. + + BRK causes a forced break to occur and the processor will immediately + start execution of the routine whose address is in $FFFE and $FFFF. + This address is often the start of a system monitor program. + + + +Some simple programming examples +================================ + + A few simple programming examples are given here. They serve to + illustrate some techniques commonly used in assembly programming. + There are doubtless dozens more and I make no claim at being a + proficient assembly language programmer. For examples of addition + and subtraction see above on CLC and SEC. + + + A count down loop + ----------------- + + ; + ; An 8-bit count down loop + ; + + start LDX #$FF ; load X with $FF = 255 + loop DEX ; X = X - 1 + BNE loop ; if X not zero then goto loop + RTS ; return + + How does the BNE instruction know that X is zero? It + doesn't, all it knows is that the Z flag is set or reset. + The DEX instruction will set the Z flag when X is zero. + + + ; + ; A 16-bit count down loop + ; + + start LDY #$FF ; load Y with $FF + loop1 LDX #$FF ; load X with $FF + loop2 DEX ; X = X - 1 + BNE loop2 ; if X not zero goto loop2 + DEY ; Y = Y - 1 + BNE loop1 ; if Y not zero goto loop1 + RTS ; return + + There are two loops here, X will be set to 255 and count to + zero for each time Y is decremented. The net result is to + count the 16-bit number Y (high) and X (low) down from $FFFF + = 65535 to zero. + + + Other examples + -------------- + + ** Note: All of the following examples are lifted nearly verbatim from + the book "6502 Software Design", whose reference is above. + + + ; Example 4-2. Deleting an entry from an unordered list + ; + ; Delete the contents of $2F from a list whose starting + ; address is in $30 and $31. The first byte of the list + ; is its length. + ; + + deluel LDY #$00 ; fetch element count + LDA ($30),Y + TAX ; transfer length to X + LDA $2F ; item to delete + nextel INY ; index to next element + CMP ($30),Y ; do entry and element match? + BEQ delete ; yes. delete element + DEX ; no. decrement element count + BNE nextel ; any more elements to compare? + RTS ; no. element not in list. done + + ; delete an element by moving the ones below it up one location + + delete DEX ; decrement element count + BEQ deccnt ; end of list? + INY ; no. move next element up + LDA ($30),Y + DEY + STA ($30),Y + INY + JMP delete + deccnt LDA ($30,X) ; update element count of list + SBC #$01 + STA ($30,X) + RTS + + + + + ; Example 5-6. 16-bit by 16-bit unsigned multiply + ; + ; Multiply $22 (low) and $23 (high) by $20 (low) and + ; $21 (high) producing a 32-bit result in $24 (low) to $27 (high) + ; + + mlt16 LDA #$00 ; clear p2 and p3 of product + STA $26 + STA $27 + LDX #$16 ; multiplier bit count = 16 + nxtbt LSR $21 ; shift two-byte multiplier right + ROR $20 + BCC align ; multiplier = 1? + LDA $26 ; yes. fetch p2 + CLC + ADC $22 ; and add m0 to it + STA $26 ; store new p2 + LDA $27 ; fetch p3 + ADC $23 ; and add m1 to it + align ROR A ; rotate four-byte product right + STA $27 ; store new p3 + ROR $26 + ROR $25 + ROR $24 + DEX ; decrement bit count + BNE nxtbt ; loop until 16 bits are done + RTS + + + + ; Example 5-14. Simple 16-bit square root. + ; + ; Returns the 8-bit square root in $20 of the + ; 16-bit number in $20 (low) and $21 (high). The + ; remainder is in location $21. + + sqrt16 LDY #$01 ; lsby of first odd number = 1 + STY $22 + DEY + STY $23 ; msby of first odd number (sqrt = 0) + again SEC + LDA $20 ; save remainder in X register + TAX ; subtract odd lo from integer lo + SBC $22 + STA $20 + LDA $21 ; subtract odd hi from integer hi + SBC $23 + STA $21 ; is subtract result negative? + BCC nomore ; no. increment square root + INY + LDA $22 ; calculate next odd number + ADC #$01 + STA $22 + BCC again + INC $23 + JMP again + nomore STY $20 ; all done, store square root + STX $21 ; and remainder + RTS + + + This is based on the observation that the square root of an + integer is equal to the number of times an increasing odd + number can be subtracted from the original number and remain + positive. For example, + + 25 + - 1 1 + -- + 24 + - 3 2 + -- + 21 + - 5 3 + -- + 16 + - 7 4 + -- + 9 + - 9 5 = square root of 25 + -- + 0 + + +If you are truly interested in learning more, go to your public library +and seek out an Apple machine language programming book. If your public +library is like mine, there will still be plenty of early 80s computer +books on the shelves. :) +</pre> +<hr> +<img src="Assembly%20In%20One%20Step_files/index.html"><br> +Last update: 30-Jan-00<br> +<a href="https://dwheeler.com/6502/oneelkruns/65index.html"><b>Back</b></a> +<!-- text below generated by server. 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